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Volume 14, No. 2

EMMAUS WALK IN RUSSIA

Olga Batova

The Walk to Emmaus movement, a ministry of the United Methodist Church, is well known to many evangelical Christians in the West and worldwide. This unique, three-day spiritual retreat is held in a camp setting, far from the daily routine and business of life. It is a special time to refresh one’s commitment to Christ and to experience God’s love expressed through His people. It also is a time of meditation and reflection upon one’s own spiritual journey and priorities in life.

Since the beginning of the Emmaus Walk in the 1970s, the movement has spread across the United States and to 32 countries worldwide, with nearly one million participants to date. Currently, eight European states have Emmaus Walk movements. In 1990 I was honored to be a part of the introduction of the Walk to Emmaus to Estonia. At that time I was on the faculty of the newly formed Baltic Methodist Theological Seminary, translating for Russian-speaking students from Estonia, Latvia, and Russia.

Emmaus to Estonia

Wes Griffin, the first dean of the seminary, became convinced that the Emmaus Walk movement would be a blessing for Estonia. (A native of the U.S. state of Georgia and a graduate of Asbury Theological Seminary, he currently is president of Leadership Institute, Carrollton, Georgia.) In 1995 Griffin contacted the Emmaus communities of North Georgia and Peoria, Illinois, which led to key leaders of the United Methodist Church in Estonia (Estonians, Russians, and one Latvian) and students and some faculty from the Baltic Methodist Theological Seminary receiving invitations to participate in Emmaus retreats in the U.S. Five men and three women attended Peoria Walks 102 and 105 in February 1996, and eight men and nine women attended North Georgia Walks 49 and 58 in February-March 1996. (Participants refer to Emmaus retreats as “Walks.”) I had the privilege of serving as translator in North Georgia. That Walk and others where I translated were “mountain top” experiences for all of us.

After meeting with Cheri Jones, who was then International Director of the Walk to Emmaus, our whole group had a vision to start the Emmaus Walk movement in Estonia. The first set of two Walks — men and women participate separately —was held in Estonia in the summer of 1996. The team from America helped us a great deal in launching the Emmaus movement in Estonia, and we continued on our own. In 1997 I translated all Emmaus materials into Russian, and we started to translate them into Estonian as well. I was honored to serve as the first lay director for the Estonian Emmaus Community, which is now known as “Eesti Emmause Kogudus.” Because of the lack of facilities, the Walks are conducted in the summertime in Estonia. (The camp where the Walks are held, Camp Gideon, cannot be used in the winter since it has no heating system.)

By 2006, the tenth anniversary of the Emmaus Movement in Estonia, the number of participants in Emmaus Walks had reached more than 500 people. Over the years the Walk to Emmaus has proven to be an excellent tool to unite Christians in Estonia. The outpouring of God’s love at the Walks has helped people to become “nationality” blind. Not only ethnic barriers, but also denominational barriers have been lowered through the Emmaus Walk movement.

From Estonia to Russia

I want to use the experience and help of the Estonian Emmaus community to launch the Emmaus Walk movement in Russia. The longstanding close ties between Estonian and Russian Methodists should help in this process. Methodism began in Estonia with the preaching of Vassili Täht in 1907, a missionary from St. Petersburg, Russia. The Methodist movement survived in Estonia during Soviet times even though all Methodist churches were closed in Russia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the first Methodist Church opened in Russia in the city of Samara in 1992. The pastor, Vladislav Spektorov, was a convert to Christ (and Methodism) in Tallinn, Estonia, at the Estonian Methodist Church in its Russian congregation. In 1997, Stas and Maria Ossipov from Tallinn, Estonia, joined a mission group to Satka (in the Chelyabinsk Region of the Urals). In 1998 the Satka United Methodist Church opened with Stas Ossipov as pastor. Another group from Tallinn, Estonia, visited Satka in the winter of 1999 and three people from Estonia joined an American group on a mission trip to Satka in 2005. Fortunately, Rev. Olga Kotsuba, District Superintendent of the United Methodist Church in the Ural District of Russia, is a veteran of a 1995 Emmaus retreat in Nashville, Tennessee.

Future Plans

Let me share my vision for launching the Emmaus movement in Russia. With the help of the Upper Room ministry, a number of practical steps need to be taken in order to realize this vision.

1. Eesti Emmause Kogudus and Gulf Breeze United Methodist Church have invited key leaders from Satka and Ekaterinburg United Methodist Churches to participate in the Walk to Emmaus in Estonia in August 2007. (The Estonian Emmaus Community is multilingual and all talks are simultaneously translated into Russian. In addition, all printed Emmaus materials will be published in Russian by 2007.)

2. In August 2007 Emmaus Walk veterans from the U.S. will assist with the Walks in Estonia and will meet with the new pilgrims from Russia after their retreats to discuss the launching of Walks in Russia.

3. Bishop of Eurasia Hans Vaxby and Victor Perez, International Director of Emmaus (Nashville, Tennessee), will attend the Walks in Estonia in 2007.

4. In Fall 2007 and Spring 2008 invitations to Emmaus Walk retreats will be sent to believers in the Ural District of the United Methodist Church.

5. An Emmaus Walk team from the U.S. and from Estonia will lead Walks in Satka in 2008.

6. In 2009 three teams will conduct the first Walks in Yekaterinburg and arrange a second set of Walks for Satka.

The Upper Room Emmaus Movement has a great future in Russia, but it will take vision and hard work to realize that dream. Emmaus Walk retreats, which help deepen Christian commitment for life, are well worth the effort. F

Editor’s note: Readers of any denomination or Christian confession are welcome to contact the Emmaus Walk office (www.emmaus.com) to explore the possibility of participation in Emmaus Walk retreats.

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Volume 14, No. 2

Book Review

Walter W. Sawatsky and Peter F. Penner, eds. Mission in the Former Soviet Union.

Schwarzenfeld, Germany: Neufeld Verlag, 2005. Reviewed by Matt Miller.

Mission in the Former Soviet Union is a collection of articles adapted from presentations made at a February 2003 conference hosted by the International Baptist Theological Seminary in Prague. A number of mission specialists and historians gathered to discuss a variety of topics, especially issues related to the previous fifteen years of interaction between Western missionaries and local churches in the regions previously known as the USSR. Six chapters written by the editors form the core of the book. Walter Sawatsky is a leading scholar on the history of Christianity in Russia and currently serves as professor of church history and mission at Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, Indiana, USA. Peter Penner has served for many years in the area of theological education and now is on the faculty of the International Baptist Theological Seminary. Sawatsky addresses the history of mission, evangelism, and inter-church relations, while Penner looks at these topics from theological and practical viewpoints. The remaining four chapters discuss Russian evangelists of the past (Marina Sergeyevna Karetnikova), German churches in Central Asia (Johannes Dyck), current restrictions on missionary visas (Mark R. Elliott), and camping ministries (Viktor Artemov).

The contributors have all personally participated in various aspects of mission in this area, so their approaches are not detached. However, the general tone of the book is far from self-congratulatory. One theme that runs through the book is voiced by Penner: “The North American pragmatism (‘whatever works’) of the last decade or more in the former Soviet Union is not consistent with the missionary God of Scripture” (13). The book provides a general survey of developments and trends and summarizes findings of other recent studies. It is more of a survey than a collection of new research; the volume’s footnotes point readers to a number of useful recent studies on mission in the former Soviet Union (FSU), including works by Russian sociologists.

The chapters touch on many of the most controversial aspects of mission in the Slavic world. Penner and Sawatsky both repeat criticisms of the CoMission project found in other publications, especially of the participants’ perceived lack of understanding of Russian culture, language, and history. Penner addresses the complex issues of partnership and financial dependency. He also discusses a variety of issues related to the explosive growth in theological education in the FSU. Sawatsky’s chapter on “Inter-Church Mission Dialogue” describes several facets of the relationship between Protestants and Orthodox in Russia. He closely examines the attitudes of the Moscow hierarchy on freedom of religion. The chapter also traces recent developments in the conflict between Rome and Moscow.

A number of fascinating stories appear in the text. For example, Sawatsky points out that the Orthodox Institute of Missiological Research in St. Petersburg translated and published Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology Today, by evangelical scholar James Stamoolis, as a textbook. Later he summarizes recent research on the origin of the recurring conviction in Russia that non-Orthodox “sectarian” believers are psychologically ill. This is followed by a useful review of the history of the term “sect.”

This reviewer was pleased to see the appearance of a volume which addresses so many significant questions. However, if a sequel appears, it would be strengthened by the inclusion of more specific evidence (both positive and negative) in discussions of controversial issues with fewer overly broad generalizations. Also welcome would be more studies which compare evangelical mission in the FSU to other parts of the world—many similarities exist, of course. Sawatsky points out a few parallels between the spread of the gospel in the Russian empire and on the continent of Africa during the same period. He also notes the vital roles played by ordinary, unnamed people during the first centuries of Christianity and its first decades in Ukraine and Russia. It would be useful to compare the development of short-term ministry projects in this area with those in other parts of the world, especially since 1990 marked both the rapid advance of work in the FSU and a surge in short-term projects around the world. These studies must include the wider context of the recent increase in the number of Western young people traveling, studying, and serving abroad. F

Matt Miller, a Ph.D. candidate in Russian history at the University of Minesota, works in Moscow with the Evangelical Free Church.

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Volume 14, No. 2

Pentecostal Revival in Post-Communist Bulgaria

Dony K. Donev

The Bulgarian Protestant movement today claims over 100,000 members. This number is almost ten times higher than a 1975 German study which gave a figure of approximately 13,000 “known” Protestants in Bulgaria.1 In the 1980s, with many Western missionaries visiting Bulgaria and gathering information about underground churches outlawed by the Communist regime, this number grew to 55,000.2

Although international reports confirmed the existence of over 100,000 Protestants in Bulgaria as early as 1994,3 the Bulgarian National Statistical Institute counted only 42,000 Protestant believers in Bulgaria in the 2002-2003 national census. This number was challenged in 2004 by Dr. Stephen Penov, a Sofia University professor and member of the Bulgarian Academy of Science. According to Dr. Penov, who is also a parliamentary expert on human rights and religious confessions, members of traditional Protestant denominations in Bulgaria exceed 100,000; in addition, membership in new Protestant denominations totals approximately 50,000.4 Since 1989, Bulgaria has experienced asustained Pentecostal revival, claiming over 100,000 new believers. Therefore, it is not surprising that over 80 percent of Bulgarian Protestants are Pentecostal or claim Pentecostal experience.

Protestant Beginnings

Protestant work in the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire began in the 1800s when the Sultan granted permission for British and American missionaries to work there. In the 1820s, the British Bible Society developed a Protestant translation of the Bulgarian Bible, which was completed and published in Constantinople in 1871. During this same period, various Protestant denominations began mission work in Bulgaria, including Congregationalists (1856), Methodists (1857), Baptists (1865), and Seventh-day Adventists (1891). In 1871, the first Bulgarian Protestant Church was founded in the town of Bansko. By the time Bulgaria gained its independence in 1878, Protestantism was well established in Bulgarian culture.

Pentecostal Origins

Ukrainian immigrants Zaplishny and Ivan Voronaev first introduced Pentecostalism to Bulgaria in 1920, preaching in the Methodist Church in the Black Sea port of Bourgas, where several were baptized with the Holy Spirit. This event marks the beginning of Bulgarian Pentecostalism. In the 1920s, the movement spread throughout the country under the leadership of Nikolai Nikolov. On 28-31 March 1928 at a national assembly, a new denomination formally emerged in Bulgaria under the name Union of Evangelical Pentecostal Churches. The organization, also known as the Pentecostal Union, affiliated with the U.S. Assemblies of God.

Pentecostal Division

The Bulgarian government required the newly formed denomination to secure legal registration, which caused a great deal of controversy and division. A conservative Pentecostal group, with congregations located mainly in Northern Bulgaria, left the union and adopted the name Tinchevists after the name of its leader, Stoyan Tintchev. The Tinchevists, who are also called Northern Brothers because of their location, later became known as the Bulgarian Church of God. Unstable leadership and disagreements over internal organization were the main factors behind the split between the Pentecostal Union and the Church of God. Unfortunately, even after the replacement of the original leaders, reunion proved impossible because of the crisis related to Communist rule.

In 1944, with Red Army backing, a Communist government came to power in Bulgaria. In 1949, Communist authorities tried and convicted 15 Protestant leaders on false charges of treason and espionage. The division among Bulgarian Pentecostals continued during the Communist regime. The Pentecostal Union secured legal existence by registering with the Communist state. This action, however, led to government interference in church life and the planting of secret agents within the denomination’s administration. The Bulgarian Church of God, on the other hand, chose to remain underground and suffered severe persecution as a result. According to archival sources, the Bulgarian Church of God had only 600 members nationwide in 1974. By 1981, however, this number grew to 2,000, with congregations in 25 cities. Membership totaled 4,000 by 1986 when the denomination affiliated with the U.S. Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee).

Pentecostal Growth

In 1986, the Bulgarian Pentecostal Union had approximately 10,000 members. When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, the denomination participated in a Pentecostal revival that swept the country. In the decade that followed, the Pentecostal Union multiplied its congregations to 500, with over 50,000 members and adherents. However, Ivan Ivanov, student pastor of the Pentecostal College in Sofia, indicated in a recent interview that membership in the Pentecostal Union may have experienced a decline since 2002.

Meanwhile, the Bulgarian Church of God has continued to grow, reporting over 32,000 members, with close to 400 congregations in 2001. Its work among Bulgaria’s ethnic minorities has resulted in the emergence of large Roma congregations, such as the church in Samokov with 1,700 members, and the church in Razlog with 450 members.

Bulgarian Protestant Profile

It is reasonable to ask why Pentecostalism is so attractive in Bulgaria today: What has enabled it to respond so well to the need for faith in post-Communist Bulgarian society? Is Pentecostalism simply filling a spiritual gap, or is it successfully responding to postmodern thinking? The answers to the above questions may be found in Pentecostal theology. In a recent survey 100 randomly selected Bulgarian Protestants answered questions about their faith which are summarized in the accompanying table.

According to survey results, the profile of the average Bulgarian Protestant is as follows: 1) basically evangelical in doctrine; 2) more Arminian than Calvinist; 3) Pentecostal/Charismatic in experience; and 4) more theologically conservative than liberal. Bulgarian Protestants are in almost complete agreement on issues such as the person and work of Jesus Christ in salvation and the importance of the Holy Spirit in the mission of the church. Perhaps these are the points of agreement which future Bulgarian Protestants should use to build unity and construct strategies for the future development of the movement. Because these also serve as the cornerstone of Pentecostal doctrine and practice, a movement toward unity within the Bulgarian Protestant movement should be initiated by Bulgarian Pentecostals. F

Dony K. Donev is a minister in the Bulgarian Church of God and a doctoral candidate at Church of God Theological Seminary, Cleveland, Tennesse

Notes:

1Klaus-Detlev Grothusen, ed., Bulgarien (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1990), 564.

2 http://www.gospelcom.net/lcwe/LOP/lop19.htm.

3GCN - EP: Sofia, Bulgaria, 8 June 1994.

4 Religia BG, 31 July 2004,

http://www.religiabg.com/?p=oldnews&id=1514.

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Volume 14, No. 2

Private Christian Colleges and Universities in the Former Soviet Union

Perry L. Glanzer and Konstantin I. Petrenko

Editor’s note: The first portion of this article appeared in the previous issue of the East-West Church & Ministry Report.

Former Seminaries Developing or Hoping to Develop into Liberal Arts Colleges

St. Tikhon Orthodox Humanities University (Moscow, Russia)

St.Tikhon University grew out of underground Bible courses offered during the Revolution. After Communism, St. Tikhon’s future leaders began holding classes on the campus of Moscow State University, and in 1992, it became an institute focused on training priests. Officially founded by the Moscow Patriarchate, it has now become the most influential theological institution of the Russian Orthodox Church. It was the first theological institution to receive accreditation from the Ministry of Education (1997) and was later called upon to develop the national standards for theology that are now used in more than 30 theology departments at state universities. St. Tikhon, however, always had a larger vision for education beyond theological training. According to its marketing material, it traces its vision to St. Tikhon, the Orthodox Patriarch persecuted after the Revolution. Thus, within the last half-decade, it has added faculties in history, philology, and pedagogical studies. Officials say it now educates 2000 full-time students on its Moscow campus, as well as hundreds more through the university’s distance education program. (For more information, see http://pstbi.ru/.)

St. Petersburg Christian University (St. Petersburg, Russia)

The history of St. Petersburg Christian University (SPCU) goes back to 1990 when Logos Biblical Institute was established in Russia’s Krasnodar Region, in an effort to provide theological education to future leaders of evangelical churches in Russia and the former Soviet Union. In 1992, the institute moved to St. Petersburg and received its current name. Although originally founded by the Russian Union of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, SPCU describes itself as a non-denominational institution. The university offers bachelor’s degrees in theology, Christian education, and youth ministry as well as graduate programs in biblical studies and church history. However, the leadership of the university is hoping to expand its current academic offerings to include non-theological majors. St. Petersburg Christian University is a member of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities. (For more information, see http://www.spcu.spb.ru/.)

Ukrainian Catholic University (L’viv, Ukraine)

The Ukrainian Catholic University originated from the L’viv Theological Academy, which was founded in 1994 through the joint efforts of the international and local Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC). The academy officially became a university when in 2002 it began offering humanities programs in addition to its theology and philosophy degrees. According to its mission statement, “The Ukrainian Catholic University is an open academic community living the Eastern Christian tradition and forming leaders to serve with professional excellence in Ukraine and internationally for the glory of God, the common good, and the dignity of the human person” (http://www.ucu.edu.ua/eng/). It also boasts of being “the first university opened by one of the Eastern Catholic churches.” In its short history, it has graduated 151 students, and it currently enrolls over 200 students. Almost all of the students are UGCC, although it also accepts other students. (For more information see Dorothy Ellen Pfeiffer, “Ukrainian Catholic University: Restoring Christian Values and Civic Engagement in Post-Soviet Ukraine,” M.A. thesis, Harvard University, 2005.)

Zaoksky Christian Humanities and Economics Institute (Zaoksky, Russia)

Another unique attempt to establish a distinctly denominational Christian college has come from the Zaoksky Christian Humanities and Economics Institute in Russia’s Tula Region. Zaoksky is affiliated with the Seventh-day Adventist denomination, which makes it Russia’s first confessional faith-based liberal arts university associated with a specific Protestant group. The institute was established by the Eurasian branch of the Seventh-day Adventist Church and has been in operation since 1987. Like the Russian-American Christian University (RACU), Zaoksky offers degrees in economics and social work. The leadership of the institute is hoping to begin an English-language program as well. Zaoksky considers integration of faith and knowledge the focus of its education and sees its mission as developing highly moral persons and qualified professionals. (For more information, see http://www.zau.ru/about/index.php?depts=institute.)

Challenges Facing Christian Higher Education in the Former Soviet Union

The Funding Challenge

In order to survive and prosper, the leaders of these institutions have had to overcome a number of unique challenges. First, financial difficulties plague post-Soviet higher education as a whole. Tuition-driven private universities are especially under tremendous pressure to find the necessary funding to cover faculty and staff salaries as well as rent and maintenance for facilities. Here, there is an important difference with regard to institutions funded largely by the West, such as RACU, Lithuanian Christian College (LCC), Zaoksky, Ukrainian Catholic University, and St. Petersburg Christian University, and those started by indigenous individuals, groups, and organizations, such as the Russian Christian Academy for the Humanities, St. John, and St. Tikhon. All the indigenous universities have been able to grow on a much more limited budget. St. Tikhon, for instance, for a time existed primarily on the sales from its bookstore and the voluntary efforts of professors committed to the endeavor. Now, it is receiving financial support from Russian businessmen and the local government. It also received back a building previously held by the Communist government that was originally owned by the Orthodox Church. The other indigenous universities also survive primarily on tuition as well as domestic donations and grants.

In contrast, the Western colleges cannot cover their more expensive operating budgets with their tuition revenues and are still heavily dependent upon Western funds and leadership. For instance, Zaoksky receives support from the international Seventh-day Adventist community and the costs of both RACU and LCC are heavily subsidized by the evangelical Christian community in North America. Some are attempting to find other means of support. Zaoksky, for instance, has established small agricultural businesses that serve the community.

Close State Oversight of Curricula

A second challenge facing these schools concerns the centralized nature of higher education in the former Soviet Union, particularly in Russia. For example, in Russia private institutions of higher education, faith-based institutes, and universities are required to offer educational programs in full compliance with the standards and guidelines of the Ministry of Education. The Ministry dictates which courses are to be included in the programs, how many classroom hours are to be allocated for each of them, and what content should be covered. Since the Ministry’s guidelines do not provide space for distinctly Christian disciplines, faith-based higher educational institutions are limited in choosing the courses and content which would help integrate faith and learning. This fact does not mean courses emphasizing Christian content may not be required, but it can limit the amount of electives a student can take. In our interviews with university leaders in Russia, we found that indigenous leaders less prone to follow the letter of Russian law had little problem with this issue, but universities sponsored by Western groups expressed greater difficulty. Nonetheless, they still found ways to address the problem. For instance, RACU has developed an additional block of courses dedicated to shaping a worldview. This curricula includes Old and New Testament surveys, a course entitled Christianity and Education, and a senior ethics seminar.

Recruiting Challenges

Recruiting is another special concern for faith-based private higher educational institutions, both in regard to faculty and students. Because Christians were discouraged or prohibited from attending higher education under Communism, it is not easy to find Christians with advanced degrees to work as professors. Sometimes it is also difficult to recruit students from the Christian communities these institutions are trying to serve. Because believers were largely denied access to higher education during the Soviet period, a large number of them, especially those middle aged and older, tend to distrust education and dismiss it as irrelevant or even destructive to Christian faith.

Demographics

The demographic crisis currently occurring in the former Soviet Union also poses a significant problem for colleges and universities. The number of high school graduates is falling off dramatically, especially in Russia. There simply are not enough young people to go around. The result is that it is a very hard environment to start a school. Nonetheless, the specialization of Christian universities can also be seen as a strength in this environment, since faith-based institutions offer a unique form of education in Russia and are able to distinguish themselves from the over 3,000 state and private institutes and universities that currently operate in the country. The connection to Christian communities also offers helpful marketing connections. RACU, for instance, attracts students by making presentations and posting information in churches and at Christian youth conferences and other gatherings.

Job Placement

Another practical challenge for faith-based private institutions is making sure graduates find job placements in their area of study. While in the Soviet era the government took the responsibility for providing university graduates with job placements, the situation is different today. It is now the task of individual educational institutions and the students themselves to find employment. Moreover, Russian employers still tend to distrust the education of young private institutes and universities, making it difficult for graduates to find good employment. Nonetheless, a strength that Christian universities bring to this problem is that many share connections to Western organizations and companies. A couple of them, such as RACU and LCC, also require their students to be fluent in English. As a result, all of their graduates are fluent English speakers capable of working in the international context. The language requirements also allow RACU and LCC to develop partnerships with Christian colleges and universities in the United States and to invite foreign professors to teach at the university.

The Perils of Government Oversight

Finally, private higher education as a whole is only beginning to gain the recognition of the general public and government agencies. In the Soviet Union most people are unfamiliar with it, often misunderstand it, and believe that it provides a poor quality education. Also, because faith-based colleges and universities are few in number, government officials often confuse them with theological seminaries. In practice, this makes it difficult for the former to win the favor of regional authorities and federal government agencies, as well as acquire or sustain their licenses and accreditation. Thus, it is crucial for Christian colleges and universities to build relationships with state officials because their power to license and accredit gives them the power of life and death over these institutions.

Conclusion

Overall, the emerging faith-based institutes and universities represent a recent trend toward the development of the Christian academy within the former Soviet Union. While some of these faith-based institutions have been established as liberal arts school, others originated as seminaries and later expanded their academic programs to include non-theological degrees. In a situation of declining interest in theological training and a growing demand for liberal arts higher education, it is reasonable to expect that more seminaries will consider broadening their programs. As a result, this process may further spur the growth of Christian higher education in Eastern Europe as liberal arts colleges emerge within the Orthodox, Protestant, and Catholic traditions.

Portions of this article originally appeared in Konstantin I. Petrenko and Perry L. Glanzer, “The Recent Emergence of Private Christian Colleges and Universities in Russia: Historical Reasons and Contemporary Developments,” Christian Higher Education 4 (2005):81-97.

Perry L. Glanger is Assistant Professor of Education, Baylor University, Waco, Texas. Konstantin I. Petrenko is a doctoral student in the School of Education, Baylor University, Waco, Texas.